Contemporary Ergogenic Aids

Contemporary Ergogenic Aids A literature review of contemporary ergogenic aids which have been recommended within the lay literature to improve exercise performance A number of psychological, mechanical, nutritional and pharmacological factors shown to limit exercise performance have been identified. Driving towards success, professional and amateur athletes attempt to identify these factors and to find techniques to minimise their likely impact. Specific nutrients or compounds used in an attempt to enhance the capacity of an individual to perform a specific task beyond effects attributable to training alone have been described as ergogenic aids (Williams, 1983).Currently, two nutritional aids have identified which are thought to reduce the rate of intramuscular metabolite accumulation, beta alanine and sodium bicarbonate. Beta alanine supplementation increases intramuscular buffering capacity by enhancing intramuscular carnosine synthesis. Whereas, sodium bicarbonate has shown to increase the extracellular buffering capacity by increasing the blood bicarbonate concentration (Requena et al. 2005). During high intensity exercise, fatigue is often associated to the excessive accumulation of metabolites, such as potassium ions (K+), hydrogen ions (H+), and phosphate ions (Pi+), and the availability of metabolic fuel sources (Fitts et al, 2008). The ergogenic potential of beta alanine and sodium bicarbonate have both become increasingly topical avenues of exploration due to the growing popularity of their supplementation by amateur and professional athletes.Therefore, this review will focus on critically evaluating the evidence on beta alanine and sodium bicarbonate, which are both currently recommended within the lay literature to enhance performance. Furthermore, to make a reasoned conclusion about nutritional manipulations which could enhance performance. Recently, a lay article claimed that beta alanine supplementation enhances performance for short duration and high intensity workouts, however decreases long duration performance (Oches, 2016). The rationale for this is based on well substantiated evidence that an increased level of beta alanine in the body elicits increased carnosine synthesis. Muscular acidosis has been recognized as one of the main causes of fatigue during intense exercise and carnosine has been shown to play a significant role in intramuscular pH regulation (Artioli et al, 2010). Therefore, Carnosine loading may enhance fatigue threshold and increase high intensity exercise performance (Blancquaert et al, 2014). Nearly a decade ago, it was demonstrated that chronic beta alanine supplementation was able to increase intramuscular carnosine content, suggesting that beta alanine is the rate-limiting factor for carnosine synthesis (Harris et al, 2006). Shortly after this, Hill et al (2007) demonstrated that increased skeletal muscle carnosine content was able to increase performance in various high intensity exercises. Following on from this, several high quality studies have explored the effects of beta alanine supplementation on sport-specific high intensity performances. These studies demonstrate that 1-10 minutes appears to be the effective time window where beta alanine is most beneficial (Salles Painelli et al, 2013). Looking closer we can see that studies which have attempted to enhance performance in exercises lasting less than one minute (Miro et al, 2013; de Salles Painelli et al, 2013) or over ten minutes (Thienen et al, 2012; Chung et al, 2014) have not found beneficial effects on performance. Whereas, studies which have examined exercises within this optimal time window have reported enhanced performance (de Salles Painelli et al, 2013; Hobsen et al, 2013). This would suggest that beta alanine supplementation may not be beneficial for enhancing short bouts of high intensity or endurance performance. A reason no positive effects are being seen in high intensity exercises lasting less th an one minute may be that these exercise models are not limited by intramuscular acidosis, thereby the increased buffering capacity of beta alanine is unable to show an effect. On closer observation we can see that some studies (Saunders et al, 2012; Ducker et al, 2013; Smith-Ryan et al, 2012) have reported that beta alanine is unable to improve repeated sprint performance and intermittent activities, where each exercise bout has been 30 seconds, signifying that beta alanine is unlikely to be beneficial in team sports, such as rugby and football. Although, it is important to mention that currently there is limited evidence examining the effects of beta alanine on sport-specific endurance events and team sport performance, consequently more research is needed before a reasoned conclusion can be made. Robust evidence suggests that the oral dosage of 4 to 6g beta alanine per day, over 4-10 weeks, increases carnosine concentrations by 40-80% (Blancquaert et al, 2015). Regarding the studies mentioned above, a dose response relationship is observed were the studies which prescribed >4g for a longer duration, reported greater improvements in performance compared to those that prescribed 4g for a shorter period of time. Looking closer we can see that Derave et al (2007) observed no significant differences in 400 meter running time trial performance following 4 weeks of beta alanine supplementation (4.8 g ·dayà ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢1) suggesting that a larger dose over a longer duration may be needed to see enhanced performance. For example, two studies previously mentioned, showed that 4-6 weeks of 6.4 g ·dayà ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢1 beta alanine supplementation improved time trial performance in well-trained subjects (de Salles Painelli et al, 2013; Hobsen et al, 2013). Regarding training status, Bex et al (2013) showed that well-trained subjects may be more responsive to beta alanine supplementation compared non-trained subjects. Furthermore, a recent study (de Salles Painelli, 2014) directly comparing whether well-trained subjects respond differently to beta alanine in comparison to non-trained subjects reported that beta alanine improves performance to a comparable extent in both well-trained and non-trained subjects. These observations are in agreement with the studies mentioned above where improvements were seen in well-trained subjects (Hobsen et al, 2013; Derave et al, 2007; de Salles Painelli, 2014). This illustrates the efficacy of beta alanine as an ergogenic aid irrespective of the training status of the subjects. Therefore, athletes as well as recreationally fit subjects could benefit from beta alanine supplementation. Overall, the scientific literature supports the claim that beta alanine supplementation has the potential to enhance sho rt duration high intensity workouts performance. In addition, the evidence supports that beta alanine has a weakened ergogenic affect with regards to long duration performance (Oches, 2016). Another recent claim made within the lay literature, states that sodium bicarbonate improves endurance performance by lowering blood lactate levels (Strength Fitness UK, 2017). Further recommends are that endurance athletes should supplement with 0.3g ·kg-1 of body mass to see improvements in endurance race performance. Lastly, it is suggested that the dose of beta alanine should be split into several smaller doses and ingested throughout the day. The rationale for this claim is based on the putative concept that the disassociation of lactic acid forms lactate and H+ which in turn decreases intracellular and extracellular pH. As mentioned before, sodium bicarbonate increases the extracellular buffering capacity by increasing the blood bicarbonate concentration, thereby causing an efflux of H+ from the muscle cells to the blood. Consequently, any ergogenic potential that sodium bicarbonate may impose depends upon the physiological demands of the exercise being adequate enough to induce a performance inhibiting level of metabolic acidosis. Looking closer we can see that there is substantial evidence demonstrating the ergogenic effect of sodium bicarbonate improving performance during short duration high intensity exercise. This effect has been reported within a range of exercise modalities which are known to elicit decreases in intracellular and extracellular pH, such as single bouts of supramaximal exercise (Thomas et al, 2015; Driller et al, 2012), high-intensity intermittent activities (Tan et al, 2010; Miller et al, 2015), and certain skill-based sports, such as judo and tennis (Tobias et al, 2010; Wu et al, 2015). In contrast, research investigating the use of sodium bicarbonate as a buffering aid in endurance performance has shown more inconclusive results (George and MacLaren 1988; McNaughton et al, 1999; Stephens et al, 2002; Northgraves et al, 2014). Delving deeper, studies which reported improvements in performance were those that tended to exhaust subjects in 1 to 7 minutes using repeated exercise bouts or single intervals (Thomas et al, 2015; Driller et al, 2012; Miller et al, 2015). The improvements seen here are likely to have been due to the energy system being utilized at the time, as much evidence illustrates that sprint-based exercises accumulate more intracellular and extracellular acid compared to endurance-based exercises (McNaughton et al, 2016), so it is likely that they will benefit more from the buffering capacity of bicarbonate than endurance athletes. For example, Northgraves et al (2014) reported no improvements for 60 minute time trial performance following sodium bicarbonate supplementation (0.3g ·kg-1 body mass) compared to Thomas et al (2015) where performance was enhanced by a 2.2% increase in mean power output during 70 seconds of all-out sprint. It must be pointed out that not all anaerobic based studies have observed a benefit following supplementation. The major differences in these studies are the timing of the dose and the trained state of the study subjects. It is also possible that large individual differences exist as far as response to supplementation is concerned.   For instance, a recent observation shows that individuals respond differently to 0.3g ·kg-1 body mass sodium bicarbonate supplementation, where time to peak pH ranged from 10 to 90 min post ingestion (Miller et al, 2016). This shows a high variability in the dose-response from sodium bicarbonate and holds a considerable limitation to all previous research that have usually utilized a standard pre-ingestion time of between 60 and 90 minutes and interpreted the response as an average of the group. This observation may have considerable practical implication, as a more personalized approach to sodium bicarbonate supplementation can be employed by athletes to elicit larger ergogenic effects. Wi th regards to the dosage, substantiated evidence suggests that 0.3g ·kg-1 5g ·kg-1 body mass of sodium bicarbonate is effective. Doses which are not within this range show to be less advantageous for enhancing performance and have shown to cause gastrointestinal discomfort (REF). Regarding training status, a common conception is that well-trained athletes are less likely to benefit from the use of sodium bicarbonate as their buffering systems are already so well developed. Although, a recent observation is that well-trained subjects are able elicit gains in performance from sodium bicarbonate more readily compared to non-trained subjects (Carr et al, 2011). This observation appears to be in line with the studies mentioned in this review which employed short duration high intensity exercise. For example, studies involving well-trained subjects showed improvements in performance (Thomas et al, 2015; Driller et al, 2012) whereas, smaller improvements were observed in studies involving non-trained subjects (Peart et al, 2013; Vanhatalo et al; 2010). Looking closer we can see that Vanhatalo et al (2010) reported no improvements in 3-min all-out sprint performance were observed following a dose of 0.3g.kg.bm sodium bicarbonate, among recreationally active subjects. Whereas among well-trained subjects, Driller et al (2012) reported ~3% performance improvement in average power during a 4 minute all-out sprint following the same sodium bicarbonate supplementation (0.3g.kg.bm). Conclusion To summarise the literature reviewed, offering conclusions on the value and appropriateness of lay literature available to modern day athletes and performers. (Synergist with bicarbonate ; Co-supplementation of ÃŽÂ ²-alanine and sodium bicarbonate, to increase both intracellular and extracellular buffering capacity, was shown to result in additional improvements above ÃŽÂ ²-alanine alone). This is where you will make your conclusions about the truth of the claims. References Artioli, G.G., Gualano, B., Smith, A., Stout, J. and Lancha Jr, A.H., (2010). Role of beta-alanine supplementation on muscle carnosine and exercise performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 42(6), pp.1162-1173. Bex, T., Chung, W., Baguet, A., Stegen, S., Stautemas, J., Achten, E. and Derave, W., (2013). Muscle carnosine loading by beta-alanine supplementation is more pronounced in trained vs. untrained muscles. Journal of applied physiology. Carr AJ, Hopkins WG, Gore CJ. Effects of acute alkalosis and acidosis on performance: a meta-analysis. Sports Med. 2011; 41:801Y14. Chung, W., Baguet, A., Bex, T., Bishop, D.J. and Derave, W., (2014). Doubling of muscle carnosine concentration does not improve laboratory 1-hr cycling time-trial performance. International journal of sport nutrition and exercise metabolism, 24(3), pp.315-324. de Salles Painelli, V., Roschel, H., De Jesus, F., Sale, C., Harris, R.C., Solis, M.Y., Benatti, F.B., Gualano, B., Lancha Jr, A.H. and Artioli, G.G., (2013). The ergogenic effect of beta-alanine combined with sodium bicarbonate on high-intensity swimming performance. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, 38(5), pp.525-532. de Salles Painelli, V., Saunders, B., Sale, C., Harris, R.C., Solis, M.Y., Roschel, H., Gualano, B., Artioli, G.G. and Lancha Jr, A.H., (2014). Influence of training status on high-intensity intermittent performance in response to ÃŽÂ ²-alanine supplementation. Amino acids, 46(5), pp.1207-1215. Ducker, K.J., Dawson, B. and Wallman, K.E., (2013). Effect of Beta alanine and sodium bicarbonate supplementation on repeated-sprint performance. The Journal of Strength Conditioning Research, 27(12), pp.3450-3460. Mero AA, Hirvonen P, Saarela J, et al. Effect of sodium bicarbonate and betaalanine supplementation on maximal sprint swimming. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2013; 10:52. Fitts RH. The cross-bridge cycle and skeletal muscle fatigue. J. Appl. Physiol. 2008; 104:551Y8 Nieper, A., (2005). Nutritional supplement practices in UK junior national track and field athletes. British journal of sports medicine, 39(9), pp.645-649. Oches, E. (2016). Everything You Need To Know About Beta Alanine. Available: https://gymjunkies.com/beta-alanine/. Last accessed 12th Feb 2017. Petrà ³czi, A., Naughton, D.P., Pearce, G., Bailey, R., Bloodworth, A. and McNamee, M., (2008). Nutritional supplement use by elite young UK athletes: fallacies of advice regarding efficacy. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 5(1), p.22. Saunders, B., Sale, C., Harris, R.C. and Sunderland, C., (2012). Effect of beta-alanine supplementation on repeated sprint performance during the Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test. Amino acids, 43(1), pp.39-47. Solheim, S.A., Nordsborg, N.B., Ritz, C., Berget, J., Kristensen, A.H. and Mà ¸rkeberg, J., (2016). Use of nutritional supplements by Danish elite athletes and fitness customers. Scandinavian journal of medicine science in sports. Smith-Ryan, A.E., Fukuda, D.H., Stout, J.R. and Kendall, K.L., (2012). High-velocity intermittent running: effects of beta-alanine supplementation. The Journal of Strength Conditioning Research, 26(10), pp.2798-2805. Van Thienen, R., Van Proeyen, K., Vanden Eynde, B., Puype, J., Lefere, T. and Hespel, P., (2009). b-Alanine improves sprint performance in endurance cycling. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 41(4), pp.898-903.

Free Things They Carried Essays: The True Enemies :: Things They Carried Essays

The True Enemies in The Things They Carried  Ã‚   In Tim O'Brien's Story "Enemies," one sees several signs that explain the aspects of the Vietnam War, and the actions of two soldiers that snapped under the pressure built up by the war. These pressures caused little tiny things to create tension not only in the minds of soldiers, but also between two soldiers. For example, conflicts grew between Lee Strunk and Dave Jensen. Two soldiers, whose actions were sparked by the craziness of the war, Lee Strunk and Dave Jensen's argument over a jackknife illustrates a perfect example of how tension built up during the war. Both men know all to well what was gong on in the war, they understood that many times they encountered men who they thought were South Vietnamese, but with the quick pull of a gun or knife a whole battle resulted because of the unknown association between the South Vietnamese and the Vietcong. On the message bard, Jeff Jacobie stated, "soldiers in Vietnam were never sure who they could trust; they were not sure if the peasants they were around were secretly loyal to the VC or not." This lack of defined enemy drove the soldiers in the war berserk. Throughout the war, an unclear enemy caused many problems for the Americans. They would ambush a town, and before they knew it, they were under scrutiny for killing people who may or may not of had any association with the Vietcong. Yet, it was a ri sk they had to take in the war, and this risk caused immense stress and tension for soldiers "humping" through the rice fields of Vietnam. Not only from not knowing who the enemy was, tension also grew in the soldiers because of their loneliness and lack of understanding for why they were in Vietnam. Most of the time, soldiers humped around the lonely land of Vietnam with the same guys for months except for the occasional supply chopper that came in or the brief radio contacts with headquarters in order to receive backup and orders. Soldiers had very little contact with others, and this isolation would drive any man crazy. In order to get by, the soldiers had to rely on each other. If they could not trust each other with their lives, none of them would ever make it back to the States to enjoy the aspects of life away form war.

Victor Frankenstein’s

As I walked through the huge cold rusty door of Frankenstein's workshop, my nostrils suddenly burned with the disgustingly smell of decaying flesh and dried blood, but still I carried on my journey threw the cold workshop. I looked up and there were broken electrical cables running right to the center of the workshop. Every couple of seconds they gave out a sudden spark of electricity. Whilst I was wondering what they were being used for, I walked further in to the workshop and I tripped over a blood covered sheet I panicked and kicked the sheet of me, and jumped back to my feet. I couldn't figure out what the electrical cables were being used for so I decided to follow them deeper in to the workshop. Along my path, I walked across broken bottles and tubes all with their contents covering the floor, and their were more of undamaged ones stacked up high on shelves, filled with their own custom colors and distinctive smells. I finally came to be the cables were linked up to, it seemed to be a giant copper tank filled with discolored water, and chunks of bone and flesh, which smelled like rotten egg. It had steam slowly escaping from the poorly welded seems of the tank, I looked behind the tank to discover another one, This one had dark green water in it and was glass, completely opposite to the copper tank, I decided to take a look. The tank was filled with dead electric ells, which had been obviously there for a while, as they were decaying. I heard loud scratching noise coming from a door in the workshop, I slowly wondered towards it,and give it a small push open, when suddenly two or three rats came scurrying out of it, they ran off somewhere behind the tank, I mainly focused what was in the room, their was a window in the corner letting rain threw its hole in the glass, it hadn't been cleaned by the looks of things since it had been installed as it was covered in years of dust and grime. I walked into the room to see what lied on the table that laid in the middle of room, the table was covered with books, one book laid open reading â€Å"Life after death†. At the other side of the table were two dissected frogs, one of them laid lifelessly with a big gash running down its back, and the other one had small wires attached to its hands and feet, I knocked a book to the floor I bent down to pick it up, and I saw a key I picked both the key and book up, I read the book cover which read â€Å"bringing back the dead† and I put it back on the table, I saw another door next to an old bookshelf, I tried to open it but it was locked. I looked at the key and tried it in the lock it worked, and I opened the door. I jumped back in fear as the door lead to a closet containing human body parts and organs I quickly slammed the door shut and ran to the other side of the room. I vomited, I panicked and ran out the room back to the main part of the workshop, to again smell decaying flesh, I ignored the smell this time and I continued running back to the entrance following the electrical cables which lead me into the workshop, I reached the rusty door and pushed it open to let me free in to the rain outside and to take a much needed fresh breath of air.

Cleisthenes Creation of the 10 Tribes of Athens

Solon, a wise man, poet, and leader, made some necessary changes in the government of Athens, but he also created problems that needed fixing. Cleisthenes reforms were instrumental in converting earlier democratic tendencies into a governmental democracy.In the 7th century B.C., economic crises coupled with the start of the age of tyranny elsewhere in Greece, beginning in c. 650 with Cypselus of Corinth, led to unrest in Athens. In the final quarter of the century, the Draconian law code was so severe that the word draconian was named after the man who wrote the laws. At the start of the next century, in 594 B.C., Solon was appointed sole archon to avert catastrophe in Athens. Solons Modest Social Reforms While Solon enacted compromises and democratic reforms, he kept the social organization of Attica  and the Athenians, the clans and tribes. Following the end of his archonship, political factions and conflict developed. One side, the men of the Coast (consisting mainly of the middle classes and peasants), favored his reforms. The other side, the men of the Plain (consisting mainly of Eupatrids nobles), favored restoration of an aristocratic government. The Tyranny of Pisistratus (aka Peisistratos) Pisistratus (6th C. to 528/7 B.C.*) took advantage of the unrest. He wrested control of the Acropolis in Athens by means of a coup in 561/0, but the major clans soon deposed him. That was only his first attempt. Backed by a foreign army and the new Hill party (composed of men not included in either the Plain or Coast parties), Pisistratus took control of Attica as a constitutional tyrant (c. 546). Pisistratus encouraged cultural and religious activities. He improved the Great Panathenaia, which had been reorganized in 566/5, adding athletic contests to the festival in honor of the citys patron goddess Athena. He built a statue to Athena on the Acropolis and minted the first silver Athena owl coins. Pisistratus publicly identified himself with Heracles and especially with the help Heracles received from Athena. Pisistratus is credited with bringing rural festivals honoring the god of revelry, Dionysus, into the city, thereby creating the extremely popular Great Dionysia or the City Dionysia, the festival known for the great dramatic competitions. Pisistratus included tragedy (then a new literary form) in the festival, along with a new theater, as well as the theatrical competitions. He gave a prize to the 1st writer of tragedies, Thespis (c. 534 B.C.). While first-generation tyrants were generally benign, their successors tended to be more like what we envision tyrants to be. Pisistratus sons, Hipparchus and Hippias, followed their father to power, although there is debate as to who and how the succession was ordered: Pisistratus died at an advanced age in possession of the tyranny, and then, not, as is the common opinion, Hipparchus, but Hippias (who was the eldest of his sons) succeeded to his power.Thucydides Book VI Jowett translation Hipparchus favored the cult of Hermes, a god associated with small tradesmen, placing Hermes along the roads. This is a significant detail because Thucydides uses it as a point of comparison between leaders in connection with the mutilation of the herms attributed to Alcibiades at the time of the Peloponnesian War. They did not investigate the character of the informers, but in their suspicious mood listened to all manner of statements, and seized and imprisoned some of the most respectable citizens on the evidence of wretches; they thought it better to sift the matter and discover the truth; and they would not allow even a man of good character, against whom an accusation was brought, to escape without a thorough investigation, merely because the informer was a rogue. For the people, who had heard by tradition that the tyranny of Pisistratus and his sons ended in great oppression....Thucydides Book VI Jowett translation Hipparchus may have lusted after Harmodius: Now the attempt of Aristogiton and Harmodius arose out of a love affair....Harmodius was in the flower of youth, and Aristogiton, a citizen of the middle class, became his lover. Hipparchus made an attempt to gain the affections of Harmodius, but he would not listen to him, and told Aristogiton. The latter was naturally tormented at the idea, and fearing that Hipparchus who was powerful would resort to violence, at once formed such a plot as a man in his station might for the overthrow of the tyranny. Meanwhile Hipparchus made another attempt; he had no better success, and thereupon he determined, not indeed to take any violent step, but to insult Harmodius in some secret place, so that his motive could not be suspected.Ibid. However, the passion was not returned, so he humiliated Harmodius. Harmodius and his friend Aristogiton, the men who are renowned for freeing Athens of its tyrants, then assassinated Hipparchus. They werent alone in defending Athens against tyrants. In Herodotus, Volume 3, William Beloe says Hippias tried to get a courtesan named Leaena to reveal the name of Hipparchus accomplices, but she bit off her own tongue so as not to answer. Hippias own rule was considered despotic and he was exiled in 511/510. The exiled Alcmaeonids wanted to return to Athens, but couldnt, so long as the Pisistratids were in power. By taking advantage of Hippias growing unpopularity, and by gaining the support of the Delphic oracle, the Alcmaeonids forced the Pisistratids to leave Attica. Cleisthenes vs. Isagoras Back in Athens, the Eupatrid Alcmaeonids, led by Cleisthenes (c. 570 - c. 508 B.C.), allied with the mostly non-aristocratic Coast party. The Plain and Hill parties favored Cleisthenes rival, Isagoras, from another Eupatrid family. Isagoras appeared to have the numbers and the upper hand until Cleisthenes promised citizenship to those men who had been excluded from it. Cleisthenes and the 10 Tribes of Athens Cleisthenes won the bid for power. When he became the chief magistrate, he had to face the problems Solon had created 50 years earlier through his compromising democratic reforms, foremost among which was the allegiance of citizens to their clans. In order to break such loyalties, Cleisthenes divided the 140-200 demes (natural divisions of Attica) into 3 regions: city, coast, and inland. In each of the 3 regions, the demes were divided into 10 groups called trittyes. Each trittys was called by the name of its chief deme. He then disposed of the 4 birth-based tribes and created 10 new ones composed of one trittys from each of the 3 regions. The 10 new tribes were named after local heroes: ErechthesisAegeisPandianisLeontisAcamantisOeneisCecropisHippothontisAeantisAntiochis. The Council of 500 The Areopagus and archons continued, but Cleisthenes modified Solons Council of 400 based on the 4 tribes. Cleisthenes changed it to a Council of 500 to which Each tribe contributed 50 members.Each deme contributed a number proportional to its size. Over time, each member came to be chosen by lot from those citizens who were at least 30-years old and approved by the outgoing council.Instead of having the unwieldy 500 sitting day after day for the year of their office, each tribe sat on the administrative and executive council for 1/10 of the year. These groups of 50 men were called prytanies. The Council could not declare war. Declaring war and vetoing recommendations of the Council were responsibilities of the Assembly of all citizens. Cleisthenes reformed the military, as well. Each tribe was required to supply a hoplite regiment and a squadron of horsemen. A general from each tribe commanded these soldiers. Ostraka and Ostracism Information on the reforms of Cleisthenes is available through Herodotus (Books 5 and 6) and Aristotle (Athenian Constitution and Politics). The latter claims that Cleisthenes was also responsible for the institution of ostracism, which allowed the citizens to get rid of a fellow citizen whom they feared was getting too powerful, temporarily. The word ostracism comes from ostraka, the word for the potsherds on which the citizens wrote the name of their candidates for the 10-year exile. The 10 Tribes of Athens Tribes TrittyesCoast TrittyesCity TrittyesPlain 1Erechthesis #1Coast #1City #1Plain 2Aegeis #2Coast #2City #2Plain 3Pandianis #3Coast #3City #3Plain 4Leontis #4Coast #4City #4Plain 5Acamantis #5Coast #5City #5Plain 6Oeneis #6Coast #6City #6Plain 7Cecropis #7Coast #7City #7Plain 8Hippothontis #8Coast #8City #8Plain 9Aeantis #9Coast #9City #9Plain 10Antiochis #10Coast #10City #10Plain *Aristotle Athenaion politeia 17-18 says Pisistratus grew old and ill while in office, and died 33 years from his first time as tyrant. Sources J.B. Bury:  A History of Greece(pages.ancientsites.com/~Epistate_Philemon/newspaper/cleis.html)Cleisthenes Recalled(www.pagesz.net/~stevek/ancient/lecture6b.html) The Athenian Origins of Direct Democracy(www.alamut.com/subj/artiface/deadMedia/agoraMuseum.html) Technology of Ancient DemocracyAspects of Greek History 750-323 BC: A Source-Based Approach, by Terry Buckley (2010)The Career of Peisistratos Son of Hippias, by Michael F. Arnush;  Hesperia  Vol. 64, No. 2 (Apr. - Jun., 1995), pp. 135-162.